METALS: TIN & LEAD
Tin, a rare element in the Earth's crust (0.0002%), occurs mainly in 
the ore cassiterite [impure tin(IV) oxide]. The metal was obtained 
first in the Bronze Age, when a mixture of coal and rocks was heated 
in air; so, presumably, one of the reactions that occurred was:
Modern technology uses coke and purified cassiterite in a furnace: but,
otherwise, the extractive method used to obtain tin, as well as copper 
and lead, has not fundamentally changed over 7000 years.
[.. K > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Co > Sn > Pb > (H) > Cu > Hg > Ag ..]
1. The principal ore of lead, a relatively rare element (0.001%) in Earth's crust, is galena [impure lead(II) sulfide]. Lead(II) oxide is formed when this ore is heated in air, and the metal is extracted by the chemical reduction of this oxide with carbon in a furnace. (a) Construct the symbol equation for each reaction in this process.
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(b) Carbon and carbon monoxide are the commonest reducing agents used
industrially to reduce metal oxides, but others are also used (e.g., 
aluminium and dihydrogen). In the laboratory, reductions with hydrogen 
gas can be attempted using the apparatus shown in this diagram.
This is an open system in which equilibrium is never reached; thus, as
predicted by Le Chatelier's Principle, the stream of dihydrogen ensures
that the position of equilibrium continually 'shifts to the right'. 
The Table below shows the calculated heat energy changes for the 
reduction of various metal(II) oxides with dihydrogen; i.e.,
State and explain the effect of a temperature increase on the:
Rate of each reaction  The rate would increase, because the increased
kinetic energy of the particles means that more of these will have the
required activation energy for successful collisions.
Yields of products in each endothermic reaction  The yields would
increase, because the position of equilibrium would shift to right so
as to oppose the temperature decrease.
Yields of products in each exothermic reaction  The yields would
decrease, because the position of equilibrium would shift to left so
as to oppose the temperature increase.
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2.  Tin, (m.pt. = 232°C; r = 7.29 g cm-³), and lead, (m.pt. = 327°C; r
= 11.34 g cm-³), are both used extensively in alloys. Name two alloys
which contain either or both metals.  Bronze / Pewter / Solder / ...
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3.  Tin is used to manufacture 'tin-plate' (i.e., steel plated with a
layer of tin). Explain how tin protects steel from corrosion.  Tin, as
metal with a low oxidation potential, provides steel with an effective
physical barrier to corrosive agents  (... e.g., dioxygen and water).
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4.  Approximately half of the lead produced is used in the manufacture
of storage batteries; in turn, these are recycled to provide about 40% 
of industry's requirements of lead. A lead storage battery consists of 
six cells connected in series; each 2 V cell, which has a lead anode, a 
cathode made of lead(IV) oxide, and an electrolyte of aqueous sulfuric
acid, delivers high currents for short periods of time.
(a) When a battery discharges (i.e., when in use providing the required
voltage), the reactions occurring at the electrodes are:
State the energy change which occurs during discharge.  Chemical energy
is transduced to electrical energy.
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(b) Suggest and explain one reason why such batteries are labelled with
the hazard symbol 'No smoking'.  The (slow) reaction of the lead anode
with the electrolyte produces hydrogen gas, which burns explosively.
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(c) Recharging the battery involves applying an external voltage to the 
anode and cathode. What name is given to this reversal of the above 
electrochemical reactions?  Electrolysis
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5.  Compounds of tin and lead have few (if any) beneficial functions in 
living organisms. However, lead compounds are known to be particularly
toxic, because lead(II) ions inhibit the 'active sites' of a number of 
enzymes; furthermore, as with so many non-biodegradable biocides, they
accumulate up the trophic levels.
(a) Name two sources of the lead ions introduced into the environment,
apart from lead storage batteries and mine-workings.  Leaded-petrol /
Paints / Old water pipes  (... particularly in 'soft water' areas)
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(b) The diagram below represents one food chain in the complex food web
of a typical slow-moving river in a temperate region.
Estimate the amount of lead(II) ions which could be accumulated by one 
otter, assuming: that each consumer in this food chain obtains its 
chemical energy by eating 10 individuals of the organism at the trophic 
level immediately below it; that none of the consumers egest or excrete 
these ions; and that each duckweed plant absorbed 0.01 mg of these
ions.  (Duckweed) 0.01 mg ——® × 10¹ × 10¹ × 10¹ × 10¹ = 100 mg (Otter)
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Name the source of energy for the producer in this food chain.  Light
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Dr. R. Peters Next Contents' List & Teacher's Notes